Endnotes
1.  Most of Walhalla's Italians came from adjoining districts on the Italian and Swiss border. The Italian nationals were from the region of Lombardy, to the north of Milan, mainly the city of Tirano in Sondrio province and its surrounding districts. The Swiss citizens were Italian-speaking ethnic Lombards from the Ticino and Grisons cantons of southern Switzerland. Historically, both groups shared a common dialect and a cultural affinity.
   'Work cluster' serves as a useful term to describe and roughly summarise the composition of the scattered group of Italian speakers, initially almost exclusively male.

2. This paper has been taken from my PhD thesis 'Migration, work and community: Italian speakers in Walhalla's goldmining district - 1865-1915', Department of History, University of Melbourne, 2006.
3. J Gentilli, 'The settlement of the Swiss Ticino immigrants in Australia', Geowest: working papers of the Department of Geography, University of Western Australia, no. 23, 1988; J Gentilli, 'Swiss Poschiavini in Australia', Geowest, no. 25, 1990; D O'Connor, No need to be afraid: Italian settlers in South Australia between 1839 and the Second World War, Wakefield Press, Kent Town, South Australia, 1996; R Pascoe, Buongiorno Australia, Greenhouse Publications, Melbourne, 1987; and WA Douglass, From Italy to Ingham, Queensland University Press, St Lucia, 1995. See also G Cheda, L'emigrazione ticinese in Australia, vols 1 & 2, Armando Dadò editore, Locarno, 1976.
4. J Templeton, From the mountains to the bush: Italian migrants write home from Australia 1860-1962, edited by J Lack assisted by G Di Lorenzo, University of Western Australia Press, Crawley, 2003.
5. BR Carlson, 'Immigrant place-making in colonial Australia: the Italian-speaking settlers of Daylesford', PhD thesis, Department of Social & Cultural Studies, Victoria University, Melbourne, 1997.
6. C Price, Southern Europeans in Australia, Oxford University Press, Melbourne, 1963, in particular, pp. 166-9. See also Price, The methods & statistics of 'Southern Europeans in Australia', Australian National University, Canberra, 1963.
7. S Castles & MJ Miller, The age of migration, Guildford Press, New York, 1993, p. 23.
8. Only a few bergamaschi have been recorded in Walhalla.
9. A Sutherland, Victoria and its metropolis, past and present, McCarron, Bird & Co., Melbourne, 1888, vol. 2, p. 369.
10. Pietro Bombardieri, diary, J Templeton collection, Italian Historical Society, Carlton.
11. Sutherland, vol. 2, p. 369.
12. PROV, VPRS 604/P0, Units 6, 13 & 17, Walhalla Gold Mining Co., shareholders' register, dividend & wages books. National Archives Australia (NAA), series A712/1, no. 1868/55908. Pietro Negri was born in 1843 in Madonna di Tirano, Sondrio province and migrated to Victoria in 1870. He had taken over the charcoal business from Pietro Raselli in early 1877. See also PROV, VPRS 1383/P0, Unit 5, Walhalla Gold Mining Co. & 'Negri & Campagnolo'.
13. PROV, VPRS 5357/P0, Unit 1235, File 794/49, Rutter, dated 1878. 'Componio' should be 'Campagnolo'.
14. A Middleton & FB Maning, Middleton and Maning's Gippsland directory for 1884 and 1885, Melbourne, 1885.
15. PROV, VPRS 604/P0, Unit 4, Walhalla Gold Mining Co. In 1874 the market value of a share was around $14,000 in today's figures (formula applied from the Australian Bureau of Statistics Year Book, 2000, p. 724).
16. ibid., Units 4 and 6.
17. ibid., Units 4, 6 and 16, Walhalla Gold Mining Co. share register.
18. PROV, VPRS 603/P0, Unit 53, Walhalla Gold Mining Co.
19. Walhalla Chronicle, 1 June 1888.
20. Sutherland, vol. 2, p. 369.
21. 'Anne' became 'Anna' sometime after her marriage to Campagnolo. She was named 'Anna' on her tombstone and in her will.
22. Index to Unassisted Inward Passenger Lists to Victoria 1852-1923 (British, Foreign and New Zealand Ports), PROV, online database. Further information about the family comes from Kit Campagnolo, a great-grandson, in a letter to the author dated 1 December 2002. Anna's parents were married at Antrim, Northern Ireland. She had an older brother, John.
23. Pioneer Index, Victoria 1836-1888: index to births, deaths and marriages in Victoria, 3rd rev. edn, 1999 (CD-ROM). Anne's children were Alice Edith (b. Swan Hill, 1876), David (b. Swan Hill, 1877) and James Gray (1878-82).
24. Records of David Andrew Baldy cannot be traced. David junior never forgave his mother but, in adulthood, daughter Alice was reconciled with her mother, her stepbrothers and stepsisters.
25. Walhalla Chronicle, 12 September 1884. From my observations, the Alpine Hotel was located in Brewery Gully near the cemetery track, two blocks north of the present Walhalla Lodge. The Licensing Act 1890, Section 177, required that 'no new licence shall be granted nor any licence transferred to any person whatever who is not a natural born or naturalized subject of Her Majesty'. Campagnolo never became naturalised but remained licensee of the Alpine Hotel until late 1891, reflecting, in his case, lax local enforcement of the Act.
26. Sutherland, vol. 2, p. 369.
27. See Carlson, 'Immigrant place-making' and C Gervasoni, Bullboar, macaroni & mineral water: spa country's Swiss/Italian story, Hepburn Springs Swiss Italian Festa Inc., Hepburn Springs, 2005.
28. Index to Unassisted Inward Passenger Lists, 1852-1923; information about Anna's family kindly provided by Kit Campagnolo.
29. A punt is a shallow, flat-bottomed boat.
30. J Aldersea & B Hood, Walhalla: valley of gold, Walhalla Publishing, Trafalgar, 2003, p. 38.
31. WH Lee, The Switzerland of Australia: views of early Walhalla and district, Lee brothers, Walhalla, 1910, revised and re-published for the Walhalla Chronicle, Moondarra, Toombon & Woods Point Times, 1981, p. 55. The Alpine Hotel was one of fifteen hotels in the Walhalla district.
32. Walhalla Chronicle, 3 December 1885. Balsarino was a Swiss national.
33. ibid., 20 May 1887. No further details about these displays have been found.
34. ibid., 11 September 1885.
35. ibid., 26 July 1889.
36. PROV, VPRS 1501/P0, Unit 4 Common Jurors Book.
37. Walhalla Chronicle, 19 January 1883 (appeal organised by Long Tunnel Extended Gold Mining Co.); ibid., 8 July 1887 (Bulli Disaster Relief Fund).
38. ibid., 28 May 1886, 26 June 1891.
39. ibid., 21 January 1887 ('Batisla' [i.e. Battista]) and A Anda).
40. ibid., 22 July 1887, 5 August 1887.
41. ibid., 21 November 1890 & PROV, VPRS 359/P0, Unit 2, debt G Smith; Walhalla Chronicle, 18 February 1887.
42. Walhalla Chronicle, 7 August 1891. This was probably the 'large house on the hill, which he let', referred to in Sutherland, vol. 2, p. 369.
43. ibid., 14 August 1891.
44. ibid., 10 April 1891.
45. PROV, VPRS 626/P0, Unit 1969, licence no. 7090/20.
46. The lease specified Campagnolo's land as Allotment 1, Section D, Parish of Numbruk (transfer of leasehold 5 March 1892).
The land had been initially selected by Francesco Melano (also known as Milano), an Italian national, in 1880 and was held by him until 1886. Milano had not continuously resided on the property and was therefore in contravention of his lease: it is recorded in his file that he 'had hired a servant to reside on it since he selected it and visits once a month'. While he risked forfeiting his rights to the leasehold for this non-compliance, in 1886 he applied for a licence lien in favour of Giovanni Valli, for £268 and as an execution creditor for approximately the same amount. Valli was probably the 'servant' referred to in the file as he had resided on the property since 1881. Milano subsequently became insolvent.
Prior to 1885, Giovanni Valli married Julia Sheehan (or Shay) and lived on the land at Ostlers Creek. After his move from that property he continued to live locally until Julia died at Toongabbie in 1898 (Indexes to births, deaths and marriages in Victoria).
47. Walhalla Chronicle, 23 February 1894. The partner was Reuben J Salvado.
48. ibid. For a description of the tramway see PROV, VPRS 1502/P0, Unit 4, ref. Victorian Government Gazette, 01/1123. The lease was declared void in 1901.
49. PROV, VPRS 603/P0, Unit 54, Long Tunnel Gold Mining Co.
50. Walhalla Chronicle, 6 September 1895.
51. ibid.
52. ibid., 4 June 1897. He was hospitalised until 22 July 1897.
53. PROV, VPRS 626/P0, Unit 1969, licence no. 7090/20.
54. ibid., Crown Lands Bailiff's report, 14 March 1901.
55. ibid., letter from Campagnolo to the Department of Crown Lands, 12 February 1901.
56. Walhalla Chronicle, 16 January 1903.
57. Under the predecessor of the current Section 52 of the Administration and Probate Act 1958 in force at the time of Campagnolo's death, when a man died intestate leaving a widow and children, the widow received one-third of the estate and the remaining two-thirds was held (in the case of minors, in trust) for the children.
58. PROV, VPRS 28/P2, Unit 647, File 87/138 and VPRS 28/P0, Unit 1119, File 87/139 (Letters of Administration).
59. Affidavit dated 26 September 1903, in ibid.
60. Letter from EM and C Collins to Court, 18 December 1906, in ibid.
61. The Shire of Walhalla merged with the Shire of Narracan in c.1930.
62. PROV, VPRS 7591/P2, Unit 669, File 187/164 and VPRS 28/P3, Unit 1293, File 187/164 (will and probate of Anna Campagnolo).